History Of The Cinema Evolution Film Studies Essay

History Of The Cinema Evolution Film Studies Essay The Frenchman Louis Lumiere is always credited and he actually is known as the inventor of the motion picture camera in 1895. Other inventors preceded him, and Lumieres achievement should always be considered in the context of this creative period. Lumieres portable, suitcase-sized cinematography served as a camera, film processing unit, and projector all in one. He could shoot footage in the morning, process it in the afternoon, and then project it to an audience that evening. His first film was the arrival of the express train at Ciotat. Other subjects included workers leaving the factory gates, a child being fed by his parents, people enjoying a picnic along a river. The ease of use and portability of his device soon made it the rage in France. Cinematographes soon were in the hands of Lumiere followers all over the world, and the motion picture era began. The American Thomas Alva Edison was a competitor of Lumieres, and his invention predated Lumieres. But Edisons motion picture camera was bulky and not portable. The promoter in Lumiere made the difference in this competition. (Yahnke, 1996) For the first twenty years of motion picture history most silent films were shortonly a few minutes in length. At first a novelty, and then increasingly an art form and literary form, silent films reached greater complexity and length in the early 1910s. The films on the list above represent the greatest achievements of the silent era, which endedafter years of experimentationin 1929 when a means of recording sound that would be synchronous with the recorded image was discovered. Few silent films were made in the 1930s, with the exception of Charlie Chaplin, whose character of the Tramp perfected expressive physical moves in many short films in the 1910s and 1920s. When the silent era ended, Chaplin refused to go along with sound; instead, he maintained the melodramatic Tramp as his mainstay in City Lights (1931) and Modern Times (1936). The trademarks of Chaplins Tramp were his ill-fitting suit, floppy over-sized shoes and a bowler hat, and his ever-present cane. A memorable image i s Chaplins Tramp shuffling off, penguin-like, into the sunset and spinning his cane whimsically as he exits. He represented the little guy, the underdog, someone who used wit and whimsy to defeat his adversaries. Eisensteins contribution to the development of cinema rested primarily in his theory of editing, or montage, which focused on the collision of opposites in order to create a new entity. One of the greatest achievements in editing is the Odessa Steps sequence, in his film Potemkin (1925). Eisenstein intercut between shots of townspeople trapped on the steps by Czarist troops, and shots of the troops firing down upon the crowd. Members of the crowd became individual characters to viewers as the montage continued. Within the editing track the fate of these individuals was played out. A mother picks up her dead child and confronts the troops. Then she is shot. A student looks on in terror and then fleeshis fate uncertain. An old woman prays to be spared, but she is killed by a soldier who slashes her face with his saber. When a woman holding her baby carriage is killed, she falls to the steps, and the carriage begins a precipitous declineshots of the baby crying are intercut with wide sh ots of the carriage rolling down the steps. To Eisenstein, each individual shot contributed energy within the editing track that yielded far more than the sum total of shots. In other words, the combination of shots through editing created a new entity, based on the expressive emotional energy unleashed through the editing process. Although the technology for making movies was invented in 1895, a significant realization of the potential for film as art occurs with the appearance of D. W. Griffiths 1915 full-length epic, Birth of a Nation. In this film Griffith utilized crosscutting (parallel editing) effectively, particularly at the climax, when a number of editing tracks play off one another. He also portrayed battle scenes magnificently, with action in one set of shots moving from left to right, while action in another set of shots moves from right to left. But Griffiths work is diminished severely by the overt racism employed in characterizations and plotting. Then comes German Expressionism, and it was from 1919 to 1925. German got an innovative art, newly urban subject matter and refinement of technique. At that time Germany was politically, socially, economically crippled. But they influenced and thus the German directors deserve credit for their experimentation with unusual camera angles and complex stage settings. Two examples of this approach is The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1919) by Robert Wiene. The latter is also credited with perfecting the use of visual language in The Last Laugh (1924), a film about a lonely old man who is ridiculed by others. Few titles are used in the film because Murnau is able to communicate meaning by virtue of well-placed visual cues. They also got and directed mythological film like Metropolis which was spectacular. Then they brought vampire kind of films which were again something new to cinema. After that chamber play film came which was not much of expressionistic. During that time the Last laugh was t he finest German silent film. The 1920s was a miraculous golden age for Soviet cinema, both for features and documentary. The films were meticulously curated and handsomely presented collection convey the incredible excitement filmmakers felt at the opportunity to participate in the construction of the worlds first socialist state. Freed from the need to make money that drove the Hollywood industry, they could focus on educating the new Soviet population. All the films were originally released between 1924 and 1930. Each has a nifty new musical score, using both previously composed and original material. Robert Israel compiled four of them; his score to the early morning Moscow street scenes in The House on the Trubnaya makes ingenious use of Sergei Prokofievs piano cycle, Fugitive Visions, to set the mood. Lev Kuleshov not only made films, but also wrote extensively on film theory. His imaginative parody upends negative Western preconceptions about Russians and Bolsheviks, even as it consciously imitates the sty le of the American action films he so admired. With an all-star cast that includes the manic, leering Aleksandra Khokhlova and cameo appearances by two directors (Boris Barnet and Vsevolod Pudovkin) reaches its Buster-Keaton-like climax in a memorable chase sequence. In 1926, Kuleshovs style had dramatically changed, becoming less artificial and more moody and psychological under the influence of German expressionism. The coming of sound fueled a number of genre developments in Hollywood cinema. One obvious example is the film musical. Less obvious is how the horror genre also dramatized and explored potentials that synchronized sound brought to Hollywood films. Hollywood cinema was suggested by the exhibitors weekly Harrisons Reports when it explained the success of The Jazz Singer: It was the talk that Al Jolson made here and there and his singing of his Mammy song, chiefly the singing of Mammy. It was so successfully done that people were thrilled. The sight of Mr. Jolson singing to his mother, sitting in the orchestra, stirred the spectators emotions as they were stirred by few pictures; it brought tears to the eyes of many spectators. Warner Bros is best known for its innovations in sound technology. In 1925 Warner partnered with Western Electric to develop a sound system. This involved a massive investment as the company had to reconvert all its theatres. Two years later, with much fanfare, the studio released The Jazz Singer. It was herald as the first talking picture and was a huge international success, eventually grossing 3 million dollars. The sound was recorded on discs that each had a total playing time equal to one reel of film. Because this form of synchronized sound was rather unreliable, it was soon replaced by sound recorded directly onto film.

Adolf Hitler’s political views Essay

After World War I, Hitler returned to Munich.[75] Having no formal education and career prospects, he tried to remain in the army for as long as possible.[76] In July 1919 he was appointed Verbindungsmann (intelligence agent) of an Aufklà ¤rungskommando (reconnaissance commando) of the Reichswehr, to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate the German Workers’ Party (DAP). While monitoring the activities of the DAP, Hitler became attracted to the founder Anton Drexler’s antisemitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist, and anti-Marxist ideas.[77] Drexler favoured a strong active government, a non-Jewish version of socialism, and solidarity among all members of society. Impressed with Hitler’s oratory skills, Drexler invited him to join the DAP. Hitler accepted on 12 September 1919,[78] becoming the party’s 55th member.[79] A copy of Adolf Hitler’s German Workers’ Party (DAP) membership card At the DAP, Hitler met Dietrich Eckart, one of the party’s founders and a member of the occult Thule Society.[80] Eckart became Hitler’s mentor, exchanging ideas with him and introducing him to a wide range of people in Munich society.[81] To increase its appeal, the DAP changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers Party – NSDAP).[82] Hitler designed the party’s banner of a swastika in a white circle on a red background.[83] Hitler was discharged from the army in March 1920 and began working full-time for the NSDAP. In February 1921—already highly effective at speaking to large audiences—he spoke to a crowd of over 6,000 in Munich.[84] To publicise the meeting, two truckloads of party supporters drove around town waving swastika flags and throwing leaflets. Hitler soon gained notoriety for his rowdy polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians, and especially against Marxists and Jews.[85] At the time, the NSDAP was centred in Munich, a major hotbed of anti-government German nationalists determined to crush Marxism and undermine the Weimar Republic.[86] In June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the NSDAP in Munich. Members of the its executive committee, some of whom considered Hitler to be too overbearing, wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP).[87] Hitler returned to Munich on 11 July and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised his resignation would mean the end of the party.[88] Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich.[89] The committee agreed; he rejoined the party as member 3,680. He still faced some opposition within the NSDAP: Hermann Esser and his allies printed 3,000 copies of a pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party.[89][a] In the following days, Hitler spoke to several packed houses and defended himself, to thunderous applause. His strategy proved successful: at a general membership meeting, he was granted absolute powers as party chairman, with only one nay vote cast.[90] Hitler’s vitriolic beer hall speeches began attracting regular audiences. He became adept at using populist themes targeted at his audience, including the use of scapegoats who could be blamed for the economic hardships of his listeners.[91][92][93] Historians have noted the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, â€Å"Overwhelmingly †¦ Germans speak with mystification of Hitler’s ‘hypnotic’ appeal. The word shows up again and again; Hitler is said to have mesmerized the nation, captured them in a trance from which they could not break loose.†[94] Historian Hugh Trevor-Roper described â€Å"the fascination of those eyes, which had bewitched so many seemingly sober men.†[95] He used his personal magnetism and an understanding of crowd psychology to his advantage while engaged in public speaking.[96][97] Alfons Heck, a former member of the Hitler Youth, describes the reaction to a speech by Hitler: â€Å"We erupted into a frenzy of nationalistic pride that bordered on hysteria. For minutes on end, we shouted at the top of our lungs, with tears streaming down our faces: Sieg Heil, Sieg Heil, Sieg Heil! From that moment on, I belonged to Adolf Hitler body and soul†.[98] Although his oratory skills and personal traits were generally received well by large crowds and at official events, some who had met Hitler privately noted that his appearance and demeanour failed to make a lasting impression.[99][100] Early followers included Rudolf Hess, former air force pilot Hermann Gà ¶ring, and army captain Ernst Rà ¶hm. Rà ¶hm became head of the Nazis’ paramilitary organisation, the Sturmabteilung (SA, â€Å"Stormtroopers†), which protected meetings and frequently attacked political opponents. A critical influence on his thinking during this period was the Aufbau Vereinigung,[101] a conspiratorial group of White Russian exiles and early National Socialists. The group, financed with funds channelled from wealthy industrialists like Henry Ford, introduced Hitler to the idea of a Jewish conspiracy, linking international finance with Bolshevism.[102] Beer Hall Putsch Main article: Beer Hall Putsch Drawing of Hitler (30 October 1923) Hitler enlisted the help of World War I General Erich Ludendorff for an attempted coup known as the â€Å"Beer Hall Putsch†. The Nazi Party used Italian Fascism as a model for their appearance and policies. Hitler wanted to emulate Benito Mussolini’s â€Å"March on Rome† (1922) by staging his own coup in Bavaria, to be followed by challenging the government in Berlin. Hitler and Ludendorff sought the support of Staatskommissar (state commissioner) Gustav von Kahr, Bavaria’s de facto ruler. However, Kahr, along with Police Chief Hans Ritter von Seisser (Seißer) and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow, wanted to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler.[103] Hitler wanted to seize a critical moment for successful popular agitation and support.[104] On 8 November 1923 he and the SA stormed a public meeting of 3,000 people that had been organised by Kahr in the Bà ¼rgerbrà ¤ukeller, a large beer hall in Munich. Hitler interrupted Kahr’s speech and announced that the national revolution had begun, declaring the formation of a new government with Ludendorff.[105] Retiring to a backroom, Hitler, with handgun drawn, demanded and got the support of Kahr, Seisser, and Lossow.[105] Hitler’s forces initially succeeded in occupying the local Reichswehr and police headquarters; however, Kahr and his consorts quickly withdrew their support and neither the army nor the state police joined forces with him.[106] The next day, Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government, but police dispersed them.[107] Sixteen NSDAP members and four police officers were killed in the failed coup.[108] Hitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl, and by some accounts contemplated suicide.[109] He was depressed but calm when arrested on 11 November 1923 for high treason.[110] His trial began in February 1924 before the special People’s Court in Munich,[111] and Alfred Rosenberg became temporary leader of the NSDAP. On 1 April Hitler was sentenced to five years’ imprisonment at Landsberg Prison.[112] He received friendly treatment from the guards; he was allowed mail from supporters and regular visits by party comrades. The Bavarian Supreme Court issued a pardon and he was released from jail on 20 December 1924, against the state prosecutor’s objections.[113] Including time on remand, Hitler had served just over one year in prison.[114] Dust jacket of Mein Kampf (1926–1927) While at Landsberg, Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf (My Struggle; originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice) to his deputy, Rudolf Hess.[114] The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart, was an autobiography and an exposition of his ideology. Mein Kampf was influenced by The Passing of the Great Race by Madison Grant, which Hitler called â€Å"my Bible†.[115] The book laid out Hitler’s plans for transforming German society into one World War II Early diplomatic successes Alliance with Japan Main article: Germany–Japan relations Hitler and the Japanese Foreign Minister, YÃ… suke Matsuoka, at a meeting in Berlin in March 1941. In the background is Joachim von Ribbentrop. In February 1938, on the advice of his newly appointed Foreign Minister, the strongly pro-Japanese Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hitler ended the Sino-German alliance with the Republic of China to instead enter into an alliance with the more modern and powerful Japan. Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo, the Japanese-occupied state in Manchuria, and renounced German claims to their former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan.[195] Hitler ordered an end to arms shipments to China and recalled all German officers working with the Chinese Army.[195] In retaliation, Chinese General Chiang Kai-shek cancelled all Sino-German economic agreements, depriving the Germans of many Chinese raw materials.[196] Austria and Czechoslovakia On 12 March 1938 Hitler declared unification of Austria with Nazi Germany in the Anschluss.[197][198] Hitler then turned his attention to the ethnic German population of the Sudetenland district of Czechoslovakia.[199] On 28–29 March 1938 Hitler held a series of secret meetings in Berlin with Konrad Henlein of the Sudeten Heimfront (Home Front), the largest of the ethnic German parties of the Sudetenland. The men agreed that Henlein would demand increased autonomy for Sudeten Germans from the Czechoslovakian government, thus providing a pretext for German military action against Czechoslovakia. In April 1938 Henlein told the foreign minister of Hungary that â€Å"whatever the Czech government might offer, he would always raise still higher demands †¦ he wanted to sabotage an understanding by all means because this was the only method to blow up Czechoslovakia quickly†.[200] In private, Hitler considered the Sudeten issue unimportant; his real intention was a war of conquest against Czechoslovakia.[201] October 1938: Hitler (standing in the Mercedes) drives through the crowd in Cheb (German: Eger), part of the German-populated Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia, which was annexed to Nazi Germany due to the Munich Agreement In April Hitler ordered the OKW to prepare for Fall Grà ¼n (â€Å"Case Green†), the code name for an invasion of Czechoslovakia.[202] As a result of intense French and British diplomatic pressure, on 5 September Czechoslovakian President Edvard BeneÃ… ¡ unveiled the â€Å"Fourth Plan† for constitutional reorganisation of his country, which agreed to most of Henlein’s demands for Sudeten autonomy.[203] Henlein’s Heimfront responded to BeneÃ… ¡Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ offer with a series of violent clashes with the Czechoslovakian police that led to the declaration of martial law in certain Sudeten districts.[204][205] Germany was dependent on imported oil; a confrontation with Britain over the Czechoslovakian dispute could curtail Germany’s oil supplies. Hitler called off Fall Grà ¼n, originally planned for 1 October 1938.[206] On 29 September Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Édouard Daladier, and Benito Mussolini attended a one-day conference in Munich that led to the Munich Agreement, which handed over the Sudetenland districts to Germany.[207][208] Jewish shops destroyed in Magdeburg, following Kristallnacht (November 1938) Chamberlain was satisfied with the Munich conference, calling the outcome â€Å"peace for our time†, while Hitler was angered about the missed opportunity for war in 1938;[209][210] he expressed his disappointment in a speech on 9 October in Saarbrà ¼cken.[211] In Hitler’s view, the British-brokered peace, although favourable to the ostensible German demands, was a diplomatic defeat which spurred his intent of limiting British power to pave the way for the eastern expansion of Germany.[212][213] As a result of the summit, Hitler was selected Time magazine’s Man of the Year for 1938.[214] In late 1938 and early 1939, the continuing economic crisis caused by rearmament forced Hitler to make major defence cuts.[215] In his â€Å"Export or die† speech of 30 January 1939, he called for an economic offensive to increase German foreign exchange holdings to pay for raw materials such as high-grade iron needed for military weapons.[215] On 15 March 1939, in violation of the Munich accord and possibly as a result of the deepening economic crisis requiring additional assets,[216] Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht to invade Prague, and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate.[217]

Life Magazine cover depicting India-Pakistan War Essay

The dispute over this region originated in the process of decolonization in South Asia. When the British colony of India gained its independence in 1947, it was partitioned into two separate entities: the secular nation of India and the predominantly Muslim nation of Pakistan. Pakistan was composed of two noncontiguous regions, East Pakistan and West Pakistan, separated by Indian territory. The state of Jammu and Kashmir, which had a predominantly Muslim population but a Hindu leader, shared borders with both India and West Pakistan. The argument over which nation would incorporate the state led to the first India-Pakistan War in 1947-48 and ended with UN mediation. Jammu and Kashmir, also known as â€Å"Indian Kashmir† or just â€Å"Kashmir,† joined the Republic of India, but the Pakistani Government continued to believe that the majority Muslim state rightfully belonged to Pakistan. Conflict resumed again in early 1965, when Pakistani and Indian forces clashed over disputed territory along the border between the two nations. Hostilities intensified that August when the Pakistani army attempted to take Kashmir by force. The attempt to seize the state was unsuccessful, and the second India-Pakistan War reached a stalemate. This time, the international politics of the Cold War affected the nature of the conflict. The United States had a history of ambivalent relations with India. During the 1950s, U. S. officials regarded Indian leadership with some caution due to India’s involvement in the nonaligned movement, particularly its prominent role at the Bandung Conference of 1955. The United States hoped to maintain a regional balance of power, which meant not allowing India to influence the political development of other states. However, a 1962 border conflict between India and China ended with a decisive Chinese victory, which motivated the United States and the United Kingdom to provide military supplies to the Indian army. After the clash with China, India also turned to the Soviet Union for assistance, which placed some strains on U. S. -Indian relations. However, the United States also provided India with considerable development assistance throughout the 1960s and 1970s. U. S. -Pakistani relations had been more consistently positive. The U. S.  Government looked to Pakistan as an example of a moderate Muslim state and appreciated Pakistani assistance in holding the line against communist expansion by joining the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) in 1954 and the Baghdad Pact (later renamed the Central Treaty Organization, or CENTO) in 1955. Pakistan’s interest in these pacts stemmed from its desire to develop its military and defensive capabilities, which were substantially weaker than those of India. Both the United States and the United Kingdom supplied arms to Pakistan in these years. After Pakistani troops invaded Kashmir, India moved quickly to internationalize the regional dispute. It asked the United Nations to reprise its role in the First India-Pakistan War and end the current conflict. The Security Council passed Resolution 211 on September 20 calling for an end to the fighting and negotiations on the settlement of the Kashmir problem, and the United States and the United Kingdom supported the UN decision by cutting off arms supplies to both belligerents. This ban affected both belligerents, but Pakistan felt the effects more keenly since it had a much weaker military in caparison to India. The UN resolution and the halting of arms sales had an immediate impact. India accepted the ceasefire on September 21 and Pakistan on September 22. The ceasefire alone did not resolve the status of Kashmir, and both sides accepted the Soviet Union as a third-party mediator. Negotiations in Tashkent concluded in January 1966, with both sides giving up territorial claims, withdrawing their armies from the disputed territory. Nevertheless, although the Tashkent agreement achieved its short-term aims, conflict in South Asia would reignite a few years later.

From Individualism to Unionism The Changing Meaning of...

From Individualism to Unionism: The Changing Meaning of Freedom in America In 1893, when Frederick Jackson Turner delivered his speech on the significance of frontier at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, he was addressing an audience that had witnessed the drastic changes that swept through the country over the past sixty or so years. The United States had gone from the agrarian nation of Jefferson’s vision—one with a relatively balanced division of wealth, a population of homogenous skilled workers, and a narrow definition of equality based on a broad definition of freedom—to the highly industrialized urban nation glorified by the World’s Fair itself—one of polarized wealth, vast and increasing numbers of unassimilated,†¦show more content†¦As long as such equality existed, as it did throughout pre-industrialized America, the conception of the government as a tyranny waiting to flex its muscle if given wide enough berth, and of freedom as being enjoyed by those not under the government’s direct control, remained. As the American economy shifted more heavily towards manufacture, however, and less cheap land was available in the territories for those objecting to wage labor to seek their fortunes, the wealth that Tocqueville required to be distributed evenly for democratic freedom became increasingly polarized in the hands of a few. With this shift came a parallel change in the concept of freedom, with the government coming to be viewed as a protector of class interests, and the meaning of freedom itself becoming tied up with financial solvency rather than ideas of political liberty. At the time of Tocqueville’s writing, during and immediately after the Jacksonian era, the national economy was still largely agriculture-based, and federal intervention in national economic matters was fiercely debated for the possible threat it posed to the â€Å"common man† that Jackson had enfranchised to protect. The controversy over the 1828 protective tariff brought that debate to a head. 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